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Abstract Despite the importance of high-latitude surface energy budgets (SEBs) for land-climate interactions in the rapidly changing Arctic, uncertainties in their prediction persist. Here, we harmonize SEB observations across a network of vegetated and glaciated sites at circumpolar scale (1994–2021). Our variance-partitioning analysis identifies vegetation type as an important predictor for SEB-components during Arctic summer (June-August), compared to other SEB-drivers including climate, latitude and permafrost characteristics. Differences among vegetation types can be of similar magnitude as between vegetation and glacier surfaces and are especially high for summer sensible and latent heat fluxes. The timing of SEB-flux summer-regimes (when daily mean values exceed 0 Wm −2 ) relative to snow-free and -onset dates varies substantially depending on vegetation type, implying vegetation controls on snow-cover and SEB-flux seasonality. Our results indicate complex shifts in surface energy fluxes with land-cover transitions and a lengthening summer season, and highlight the potential for improving future Earth system models via a refined representation of Arctic vegetation types. 

Abstract. Radiation fogs at Summit Station, Greenland (72.58^∘ N,38.48^∘ W; 3210 m a.s.l.), are frequently reported by observers. Thefogs are often accompanied by fogbows, indicating the particles are composedof liquid; and because of the low temperatures at Summit, this liquid issupercooled. Here we analyze the formation of these fogs as well as theirphysical and radiative properties. In situ observations of particle size anddroplet number concentration were made using scattering spectrometers near 2 and 10 m height from 2012 to 2014. These data are complemented bycolocated observations of meteorology, turbulent and radiative fluxes, andremote sensing. We find that liquid fogs occur in all seasons with thehighest frequency in September and a minimum in April. Due to thecharacteristics of the boundary-layer meteorology, the fogs are elevated,forming between 2 and 10 m, and the particles then fall toward the surface.The diameter of mature particles is typically 20–25 µm in summer.Number concentrations are higher at warmer temperatures and, thus, higher insummer compared to winter. The fogs form at temperatures as warm as −5 ^∘C, while the coldest form at temperatures approaching −40 ^∘C. Facilitated by the elevated condensation, in winter two-thirds offogs occurred within a relatively warm layer above the surface when thenear-surface air was below −40 ^∘C, as cold as −57 ^∘C,which is too cold to support liquid water. This implies that fog particlessettling through this layer of cold air freeze in the air column beforecontacting the surface, thereby accumulating at the surface as ice withoutriming. Liquid fogs observed under otherwise clear skies annually imparted1.5 W m⁻² of cloud radiative forcing (CRF). While this is a smallcontribution to the surface radiation climatology, individual events areinfluential. The mean CRF during liquid fog events was 26 W m⁻², andwas sometimes much higher. An extreme case study was observed toradiatively force 5 ^∘C of surface warming during the coldest partof the day, effectively damping the diurnal cycle. At lower elevations ofthe ice sheet where melting is more common, such damping could signal a rolefor fogs in preconditioning the surface for melting later in the day.